Advertisement
Research Article| Volume 22, ISSUE 9, P1107-1126, September 1987

Intravenous procaine as a probe of limbic system activity in psychiatric patients and normal controls

DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(87)90053-9
Intravenous procaine as a probe of limbic system activity in psychiatric patients and normal controls
Previous ArticleErythrocyte acetylcholinesterase in psychiatric disorders and controls
Next ArticlePlasma MHPG levels in lactate and isoproterenol anxiety states
      This paper is only available as a PDF. To read, Please Download here.

      Abstract

      Evidence from animal and human studies suggests that procaine hydrochloride may selectively activate limbic system structures and suppress neocortical structures. We administered a series of intravenous bolus doses of procaine hydrochloride to 31 subjects (7 with affective disorders, 17 with borderline personality disorder, and 7 healthy normal volunteers). Dose-related cognitive and sensory distortions and illusions were observed; affective experiences ranged widely from euphoric to dysphoric. Topographic electro-encephalogram (EEG) analysis indicated selective increases in fast activity (26–45 Hz) over the temporal lobes; the degree of increase in this activity correlated with degree of dysphoria experienced. Procaine was associated with increases in secretion of cortisol, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), and prolactin, but not with growth hormone. These preliminary data are consistent with the possibility that procaine might serve as a clinically useful probe of psychosensory, affective, electrophysiological, and endocrine effects referable to the limbic system.
      To read this article in full you will need to make a payment

      Purchase one-time access:

      Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online access
      One-time access price info
      • For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
      • For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'

      Subscribe:

      Subscribe to Biological Psychiatry
      Already a print subscriber? Claim online access
      Already an online subscriber? Sign in
      Register: Create an account
      Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect

      References

        • Abbott R.J.
        • Browning M.C.K.
        • Davidson D.L.W.
        Serum prolactin and cortisol concentrations after grand mal seizures.
        J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1980; 43: 163
        • Adamec R.E.
        • Stark-Adamec C.
        • Saint-Hilaire J.M.
        • Livingston K.E.
        Basic science and clinical aspects of procaine HCL as a limbic system excitant.
        Prog Neuropsychoparmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1985; 9: 109
        • Babb T.L.
        • Perryman K.M.
        • Lieb J.P.
        • Finch D.M.
        • Crandall P.H.
        Procaine-induced seizures in epileptic monkeys with bilateral hippocampal foci.
        Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1979; 47: 725
        • Bernhard C.G.
        • Bohm E
        The action of local anaesthetics on experimental epilepsy in cats and monkeys.
        Br J Pharmacol. 1955; 10: 288
        • Bernhard C.G.
        • Bohm E
        • Hojeberg M.L.
        A new treatment of status epilepticus. Intravenous injections of a local anesthetic (lidocaine).
        Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1955; 74: 208
        • Bowyer J.F.
        • Albertson T.E.
        • Winters WD
        Cortical kindled seizures: Modification by excitant and depressant drugs.
        Epilepsia. 1983; 24: 356
        • Bromage P.R.
        • Robson J.G.
        Concentrations of lidocaine in the blood after intravenous, intramuscular, epidural, and endotrachial administration.
        Anaesthesia. 1961; 16: 461
        • Chapman W.P.
        Studies of the periamygdaloid area in relation to human behavior.
        Res Publ Assoc Nerv Ment Dis. 1958; 36: 258
        • Chapman W.P.
        • Schroeder H.R.
        • Geyer G
        • Brazier M.A.B.
        • Fager C
        • Poppen J.L.
        • Solomon H.C.
        • Yakovlev P.I.
        Physiological evidence concerning importance of the amygdaloid nuclear region in the integration of circulatory function and emotion in man.
        Science. 1954; 120: 949
        • Chasnoff I.J.
        • Burns W.J.
        • Schnoll S.H.
        • Burns K.A.
        Cocaine use in pregnancy.
        N Engl J Med. 1985; 313: 666
        • Coppola R
        • Buchsbaum M.S.
        • Rigal F
        Computer generation of surface distribution maps of measures of brain activity.
        Comput Biol Med. 1982; 12: 191
        • Coppola R
        • Salb J
        • Chassey J
        Topographic analysis of epileptiform discharges.
        in: Abstracts of 15th Epilepsy International Symposium, Washington, DC, Sept. 26–30, 19831983: 474
        • Cowdry R.W.
        • Davies R
        • Pickar D
        Limbic dysfunction in the borderline syndrome.
        in: New Research Abstracts, 1980. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC1980
        • Cowdry R.W.
        • Gardner D.L.
        • de Jong R
        Biology and pharmacology of borderline disorders.
        in: Proceedings, American Psychiatric Association 137th Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, May 5–11, 19841984: 94 (No. 35F)
        • Crampton R.S.
        • Oriscello R.G.
        Petit and grand mal convulsions during lidocaine hydrochloride treatment of ventricular tachycardia.
        JAMA. 1968; 204: 109
        • Dana-Haeri J
        • Trimble M.R.
        Prolactin and gonadotrophin changes following partial seizures in epileptic patients with and without psychopathology.
        Biol Psychiatry. 1983; 19: 329
        • de Jong R.H.
        • Walts L.F.
        Lidocaine-induced psychomotor seizures in man.
        Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1966; 23: 598
        • Ehlers C.L.
        • Henriksen S.J.
        • Wang M
        • Rivier J
        • Vale W
        • Bloom F.E.
        Corticotropin releasing factor produces increases in brain excitability and convulsive seizures in rats.
        Brain Res. 1983; 278: 332
        • Eidelberg E
        • Lesse H
        • Gault R.P.
        An experimental model of temporal lobe epilepsy: Studies of the convulsant properties of cocaine.
        in: Glaser G.H. EEG and Behavior. Basic Books, New York1963: 272-283
        • Ellinwood E.H.
        • Kilbey M.M.
        • Castellani S
        • Khoury C
        Amygdala hyperspindling and seizures induced by cocaine.
        in: Ellinwood E.H. Kilbey M.M. Cocaine and Other Stimulants, Advances in Behavioral Biology. Plenum Press, New York1977: 303-326
        • Fairhurst A.S.
        • Whittaker M.L.
        • Ehlert F.J.
        Interactions of D600 (methoxyverapamil) and local anesthetics with rat brain alpha-adrenergic and muscarinic receptors.
        Biochem Pharmacol. 1980; 29: 155
        • Fischman M.W.
        • Schuster C.R.
        • Hatano Y
        A comparison of the subjective and cardiovascular effects of cocaine and lidocaine in humans.
        Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1983; 18: 123
        • Foldes F.F.
        • Molley R
        • McNall P.G.
        Comparison of toxicity of intravenously given local anesthetic agents in man.
        JAMA. 1960; : 172:1493
        • Foldes F.F.
        • Davidson G.M.
        • Duncalf D
        Intravenous toxicity of anesthetic agents in man.
        Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1965; 6: 328
        • French J.D.
        • Livingston R.B.
        • Konigsmark B
        • Richaland K.J.
        Experimental observations on the prevention of seizures by intravenous procaine injection.
        J Neurosurg. 1957; 14: 43
        • Freud S
        Uber Coca.
        Zentbl Ther. 1884; 2: 289
        • Gardner D.L.
        • Cowdry R.W.
        Suicidal and parasuicidal behavior in borderline personality disorder.
        Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1985; 8: 389
        • Gloor P
        • Olivier A
        • Quesney L.F.
        The role of the amygdala in the expression of psychic phenomena in temporal lobe seizures.
        in: The Amygdaloid Complex, INSERM Symposium #20. Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam1981: 489-498
        • Gloor P
        • Olivier A
        • Quesney L.F.
        • Andermann F
        • Horowitz S
        The role of the limbic system in experiential phenomena of temporal lobe epilepsy.
        Ann Neurol. 1982; 12: 129
        • Goodman L.S.
        • Gilman A
        The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics.
        ed 4. MacMillan, New York1970
        • Graubard D.J.
        • Peterson M.C.
        Adriani J Clinical Uses of Intravenous Procaine. CC Thomas, Springfield, Ill1950
        • Halgren E
        The amygdala contribution to emotion and memory: Current studies in humans.
        in: The Amygdaloid Complex, INSERM Symposium #20. Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam1981: 395-408
        • Halgren E
        • Walter R.D.
        • Cherlow D.G.
        • Crandall P.H.
        Mental phenomena evoked by electrical stimulation of the human hippocampal formation and amygdala.
        Brain. 1978; 101: 83
        • Halgren E
        • Engel Jr, J
        • Wilson C.L.
        • Walter R.D.
        • Squires N.K.
        • Crandall P.H.
        Dynamics of the hippocampal contribution to memory: stimulation and recording studies in humans.
        in: Seifert W Neurobiology of the Hippocampus. Academic Press, Orlando, FL1983: 529-572
        • Hanna M.K.
        • Blackburn J.G.
        • Ogilvie R.W.
        • Campbell S.L.
        The effects of lidocaine on hyperoxic seizure activity in the rat.
        Exp Neurol. 1978; 58: 562
        • Haskett R.F.
        • Zis A.P.
        • Albala A.A.
        Hormone response to repeated electroconvulsive therapy: effects of naloxone.
        Biol Psychiatry. 1985; 20: 623
        • Heath R.G.
        Pleasure response of human subjects to direct stimulation of the brain: Physiologic and psychodynamic considerations.
        in: Heath R.G. The Role of Pleasure in Behavior. Hoeber, New York1964: 219-243
        • Heath R.G.
        • Monroe R.R.
        • Mickle W
        Stimulation of the amygdaloid nucleus in a schizophrenic patient.
        Am J Psychiatry. 1955; 111: 862
        • Hess J.C.
        • Viada J
        • May A
        Evaluacion de la prueba de la lidocaina y dal tratamiento con carbamazepine on pacientes con tinnitus.
        Rev Laryngol Otol Rhinol. 1980; 40: 5
        • Hrachovec J.P.
        Inhibitory effect of Gerovital H3 on rat brain monoamine oxidase.
        in: Fed Proc. 31. 1972: 604
        • Hulshof J.H.
        • Vermeij P
        The value of carbamazepine in the treatment of tinnitus.
        ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Rel Spec. 1985; 47: 262
        • Ingvar M
        • Shapiro H.M.
        Selective metabolic activation of the hippocampus during lidocaine-induced pre-seizure activity.
        Anesthesiology. 1981; 54: 33
        • Israel J.M.
        • Meunier J.M.
        Procaine as an acetylcholine agonist in snail neuron.
        J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1979; 211: 93
        • Janowsky D.S.
        • Davis J.M.
        Pharmacological challenge tests in psychiatric diagnosis: physostigmine and methylphenidate.
        in: Akiskal H.S. Webb W Psychiatric Diagnosis: Exploration of Biological Predictors. Spectrum, New York1978: 263-278
        • Jasper H.H.
        • Rasmussen T
        Studies of clinical and electrical responses to deep temporal stimulation in man with some consideration of functional anatomy.
        Res Publ Assoc Nerv Merit Dis. 1958; 36: 316
        • Johanson C.E.
        The reinforcing properties of procaine, chloroprocaine, and proparacaine in rhesus monkeys.
        Psychopharmacology. 1980; 67: 189
        • Johanson C.E.
        • Aigner T
        Comparison of the reinforcing properties of cocaine and procaine in rhesus monkeys.
        Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1981; 15: 49
        • Kim Y.K.
        • Umback W
        • Bancaud G
        • Hammal A
        Clinical effects and physiological observations in the human amygdaloid complex (German).
        Neurochirurgia. 1972; 15: 41
        • Krenis L.J.
        • Liu PL
        • Ngai SH
        The effect of local anesthetics on the central nervous system toxicity of hyperbaric oxygen.
        Neuropharmacology. 1971; 10: 637
        • Lemmen LJ
        • Klassen M
        • Duiser B
        Intravenous lidocaine in the treatment of convulsions.
        JAMA. 1978; 239: 2025
        • Linnoila M
        • Litovitz G
        • Scheinin M
        • Chang M-D
        • Cutler N.R.
        Effects of electroconvulsive treatment of monoamine metabolites, growth hormone, and prolactin in plasma.
        Biol Psychiatry. 1984; 19: 79
        • Livingston K.E.
        • Pernin R.G.
        Central physiological effects of experimental intravenous procaine hydrochloride.
        J Neurosurg. 1972; 37: 188
        • MacFarlane M.D.
        Possible rationale for procaine (Gerovital H3) therapy in geriatrics: Inhibition of monoamine oxidase.
        J Am Geriatr Soc. 1973; 21: 414
        • MacLean P.D.
        The limbic system and its hippocampal formation; studies in animals and their possible application to man.
        J Neurosurg. 1954; 11: 29
        • Mandell A.J.
        • Chapman L.F.
        • Rand R.W.
        • Walter R.D.
        Plasma corticosteroids: Changes in concentration after stimulation of hippocampus and amygdala.
        Science. 1962; 139: 1212
        • Melding P.S.
        • Goodey R.J.
        The treatment of tinnitus with oral anticonvulsants.
        J Laryngol Otol. 1979; 93: 111
        • Miele E
        • Rubin R.P.
        Further evidence for the dual action of local anesthetics on the adrenal medulla.
        J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1968; 161: 296
        • Monroe R
        Episodic Behavioral Disorders: A Psychodynamic and Neurophysiologic Analysis.
        Harvard University Press, Cambridge1970
        • Mullen S
        • Penfield W
        Illusions of comparative interpretation and emotion.
        Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1959; 81: 269
        • Munari C
        • Bonis A
        • Musolino A
        • Bancaud J
        • Buser P
        • Brunet P
        • Talairach J
        • Chodkiewicz J.P.
        Amygdaloid nucleus involvement during temporal lobe seizures in man: physiopathological and surgical implications.
        in: Porter R.J. Mattson R.H. Ward A.A. Dam M Advances in Epileptology: XVth Epilepsy International Symposium. Raven Press, New York1984: 463-468
        • Munson E.S.
        • Wagman I.H.
        Diazepam treatment of local anesthetic-induced seizures.
        Anesthesiology. 1972; 37: 807
        • Munson E.S.
        • Gutnick M.J.
        • Wagman I.H.
        Local anesthetic drug-induced seizures in rhesus monkeys.
        Anesthes Analges. 1970; 49: 986
        • Nashold B.S.
        • Flanigan H
        • Wilson W.P.
        • Stewart B
        Sterotactic evaluation of bitemporal epilepsy with electrodes and lesions.
        Confin Neurol. 1975; 35: 94
        • Neubig R.R.
        • Krodel E.K.
        • Boyd N.D.
        • Cohen J.B.
        Acetylcholine and local anesthetic binding to Torpedo nicotinic postsynaptic membranes after removal of non-receptor peptides.
        in: Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 76. 1979: 690
        • Papez J.W.
        A proposed mechanism of emotion.
        Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1937; 38: 725
        • Parra A
        • Velasco M
        • Cervantes C
        • Munoz H
        • Cerbon M.A.
        • Velasco F
        Plasma prolactin increase following electric stimulation of the amygdala in humans.
        Neuroendocrinology. 1980; 31: 60
        • Penfield W
        The Excitable Cortex in Conscious Man. The Sherrington Lectures V.
        Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL1958
        • Penfield W
        • Perot P
        The brain's record of auditory and visual experience. A final summary and discussion.
        Brain. 1963; 86: 595
        • Post R.M.
        Clinical aspects of cocaine: assessment of acute and chronic effects in animals and man.
        in: Mule S.J. Cocaine: Chemical, Biological, Clinical, Social, and Treatment Aspects. CRC Press, Cleveland1976: 203-215
        • Post R.M.
        Does limbic system dysfunction play a role in affective illness?.
        in: Doane B.K. Livingston K.E. The Limbic System: Functional Organization and Clinical Disorders. Raven Press, New York1986: 229-249
        • Post R.M.
        • Ballenger J.C.
        Kindling models for the progressive development of behavioral psychopathology: Sensitization to electrical, pharmacological, and psychological stimuli.
        in: Handbook of Biological Psychiatry, Part IV. Marcel Dekker, New York1981: 609-651
        • Post R.M.
        • Uhde T.W.
        Are the psychotropic effects of carbamazepine in manic-depressive illness mediated through the limbic system?.
        Psychiatr J Ottawa. 1985; 10: 205
        • Post R.M.
        • Kopanda R.T.
        • Lee A
        Progressive behavioral changes during chronic lidocaine administration: relationship to kindling.
        Life Sci. 1975; 17: 943
        • Post R.M.
        • Squillace K.M.
        • Pert A
        Rhythmic oscillations in amygdala excitability during kindling.
        Life Sci. 1978; 22: 717
        • Post R.M.
        • Ballenger J.C.
        • Uhde T.W.
        • Bunney Jr, W.E.
        Efficacy of carbamazepine in manic-depressive illness: Implications for underlying mechanisms.
        in: Post R.M. Ballenger J.C. Neurobiology of Mood Disorders. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore1984: 777-816
        • Post R.M.
        • Rubinow D.R.
        • Ballenger J.C.
        Conditioning, sensitization, and kindling: Implications for the course of affective illness.
        in: Post R.M. Ballenger J.C. Neurobiology of Mood Disorders. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore1984: 432-466
        • Post R.M.
        • Kennedy C
        • Shinohara M
        • Squillace K
        • Miyaoka M
        • Suda S
        • Ingvar D.H.
        • Sokoloff L
        Metabolic and behavioral consequences of lidocaine-kindled seizures.
        Brain Res. 1984; 324: 295
        • Post R.M.
        • Uhde T.W.
        • Roy-Byrne P.P.
        • Joffe R.T.
        Antidepressant effects of carbamazepine.
        Am J Psychiatry. 1986; 143: 29
        • Post R.M.
        • Weiss S.R.B.
        • Pert A
        • Uhde T.W.
        Chronic cocaine administration: sensitization and kindling effects.
        in: Fisher S Raskin A Uhlenhuth E.H. Cocaine: Clinical and Biobehavioral Aspects. Oxford University Press, New York1987: 109-173
        • Postma S.W.
        • Catterall W.A.
        Inhibition of binding of [3H]batrachotoxinin A 20-alpha-benzoate to sodium channels by local anesthetics.
        Mol Pharmacol. 1984; 25: 219
        • Racine R
        • Livingston K
        • Joaquin A
        Effects of procaine hydrochloride, diazepam, and diphenylhydantoin on seizure development in cortical and subcortical structures in rats.
        Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1975; 38: 355
        • Reith M.E.
        • Sershen H
        • Lajtha A
        Saturable [3H]cocaine binding in central nervous system of mouse.
        Life Sci. 1980; 27: 1055
        • Riblet L.A.
        • Tuttle W.W.
        Investigation of the amygdaloid and olfactory electrographic response in the cat after toxic dosage of lidocaine.
        Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1970; 28: 601
        • Risch S.C.
        • Kalin N.H.
        • Janowsky D.S.
        • Cohen R.M.
        • Pickar D
        • Murphy DL
        Co-release of ACTH and beta-endorphin immunoreactivity in human subjects in response to central cholinergic stimulation.
        Science. 1983; 222: 77
        • Sator V
        • Raftery MA
        • Thomas JK
        • Martinez-Carrion M
        Effect on acetylcholine receptor enriched membrane preparations from Torpedo californica electroplax.
        Arch Biochem Biophys. 1979; 192: 25
        • Schulz SC
        • Schulz PM
        • Domisse C
        • Hamer RM
        • Blackard WG
        • Narasimhachari N
        • Friedel RO
        Amphetamine response in borderline patients.
        Psychiatry Res. 1985; 15: 97
        • Shea JJ
        • Harell M
        Management of tinnitus aurium with lidocaine and carbamazepine.
        Laryngoscope. 1978; 88: 1477
        • Silber TJ
        • D'Angelo L
        Psychosis and seizures following the injection of penicillin and procaine: Hoigne's syndrome.
        Am J Dis Child. 1985; 139: 335
        • Silberman EK
        • Reus VI
        • Jimerson DC
        • Lynott AM
        • Post RM
        Heterogeneity of amphetamine response in depressed patients.
        Am J Psychiatry. 1981; 138: 1302
        • Smith RF
        • Wharton GG
        • Kurtz SL
        • Mattran KM
        • Hollenbeck AR
        Behavioral effects of mid-pregnancy administration of lidocaine and mepivacaine in the rat.
        Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol. 1986; 8: 61
        • Stark-Adamec C
        • Adamec R
        • Graham JM
        • Bruun-Meyer SE
        • Perrin RG
        • Pollack D
        • Livingston KE
        Analysis of facial displays and verbal report to access subjective state in the non-invasive detection of limbic system activation by procaine hydrochloride.
        Behav Brain Res. 1986; 4: 77
        • Stevens JR
        • Mark VH
        • Ervin F
        • Pacheco P
        • Suematsu K
        Deep temporal stimulation in man.
        Arch Neurol. 1969; 21: 157
        • Stripling JS
        Origin of cocaine-induced and lidocaine-induced spindle activity within the olfactory forebrain of the rat.
        Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1982; 53: 208
        • Thompson DS
        • Seifer AB
        • Ferrari AA
        • Lawson NW
        Reappraisal of intravenous procaine as a short-acting anesthetic adjuvant.
        Am J Surg. 1979; 138: 798
        • Tsukamoto S
        • Takemura K
        • Hori Y
        • Horuki N
        • Utsumi S
        The use of lidocaine in the management of status epilepticus.
        Fol Psychiatr Neurol Jpn. 1980; 34: 402
        • Usubiaga JE
        • Wilkinski J
        • Ferrero T
        • Usubiaga LE
        • Wikinski R
        Local anesthetic induced convulsions in man. An electroencephalographic study.
        Curr Res Anesth Analg. 1966; 45: 611
        • Van Dyke C
        • Jatlow P
        • Ungerer J
        • Barash P
        • Byck R
        Cocaine and lidocaine have similar psychological effects after intranasal application.
        Life Sci. 1979; 24: 271
        • Van Hoesen GW
        • Vogt BA
        • Pandya DN
        • McKenna TM
        Compound stimulus differentiation behavior in the rhesus monkey following periarcuate ablations.
        Brain Res. 1980; 186: 365
        • Wada JA
        • Sato M
        • Wake A
        • Green JR
        • Troupin AS
        Prophylactic effects of phenytoin, phenobarbital, and carbamazepine examined in kindled cat preparations.
        Arch Neurol. 1976; 33: 426
        • Wagman IH
        • de Jong RH
        • Prince DA
        Effects of lidocaine on the central nervous system.
        Anesthesiology. 1967; 28: 155
        • Weiss SRB
        • Post RM
        Carbamazepine and carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide inhibit amygdala kindled seizures in the rat but do not block their development.
        1986 (submitted for publication).
        • Weiss SRB
        • Post RM
        • Gold PW
        • Chrousos G
        • Sullivan TL
        • Walker D
        • Pert A
        CRF-induced seizures and behavior: Interaction with amygdala kindling.
        Brain Res. 1986; 372: 345
        • Westreich G
        • Kneller NA
        Intravenous lidocaine for status epilepticus.
        Minn Med. 1972; 12: 807
        • Wikinski JA
        • Usubiaga JE
        • Morales RL
        • Torrieri A
        • Usubiaga LE
        Mechanism of convulsions elicited by local anesthetic agents. I. Local anesthetic depression of electrically-induced seizures in man.
        Anesth Analg. 1970; 49: 504
        • Willow M
        • Catterall WA
        Inhibition of binding of [3H]batrachotoxinin A 20-alpha-benzoate to sodium channels by the anticonvulsant drugs diphenylhydantoin and carbamazepine.
        Mol Pharmacol. 1982; 22: 627
        • Woolverton WL
        • Balster RL
        Behavioral pharmacology of local anesthetics: Reinforcing and discriminative stimulus effects.
        Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1982; 16: 491

      Article info

      Publication history

      Received in revised form: December 5, 1986
      Received: May 8, 1986

      Identification

      DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(87)90053-9

      Copyright

      © 1987 Published by Elsevier Inc.

      ScienceDirect

      Access this article on ScienceDirect

      The content on this site is intended for healthcare professionals.


      We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content. To update your cookie settings, please visit the Cookie Preference Center for this site.
      Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. except certain content provided by third parties.


      RELX